# Rejection Alarm References

- Link: https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/
- Published: 2026-10-17T20:37:57+00:00
- Author: Saal_clearingforest

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[ All pages ](https://clearingintheforest.org/?page_id=267#pages)


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[ References ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/)

 Sources

# References

Every source used on the Learn and Toolkit pages. Each one says what kind of evidence
it is and what it found, in plain words.

**Verified** means the citation and link were checked against the publisher or a
repository in October 2026. **Partly verified** means some detail, such as a page
range or link, could not be checked; the note says which.

### Corrections to citations often repeated online

 * Surman's _Am J Psychiatry_ paper is 2011. The 2013 paper with the 55% figure 
   is in _ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders_.
 * Faraone 2019 is in _J Child Psychol Psychiatry_.
 * Lenzi is in _Neurosci Biobehav Rev_ (online 2017, print 2018).
 * Babinski 2019 is in _J Abnorm Child Psychol_; Ginapp 2023 is in _PLoS ONE_. Neither
   is in _J Atten Disord_.
 * The pain-versus-rejection brain critique often cited as "Wager 2013" is Woo, 
   Wager and colleagues, 2014.

Search the list65 sources

 [ The debate ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/#g-debate)
[ Dysregulation ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/#g-dysreg)
[ Rejection sensitivity ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/#g-rs)
[ RS and ADHD ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/#g-rsadhd)
[ Treatment and tools ](https://clearingintheforest.org/rejection-alarm-references/#g-treat)

## The debate: RSD and its critics

VideoPartly verified

Barkley RA. Commentary on rejection sensitive dysphoria and ADHD . YouTube, undated.

Transcript reviewed in full. Says RSD is not a valid disorder, has no empirical 
basis, and is explained by poor emotional self-regulation in ADHD. Link not verified.

No verified link

Magazine articleVerified

Dodson WW. How ADHD ignites rejection sensitive dysphoria. ADDitude, 2017 (updated
2026).

Defines RSD; says nearly everyone with ADHD has it; reports guanfacine or clonidine
help about 1 in 3; suggests MAOIs. No sources given for these figures.

[ www.additudemag.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria-and-adhd/ ](https://www.additudemag.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria-and-adhd/)

SlidesVerified

Dodson WW. Medication management of ADHD, part 3 [webinar slides]. ADDA, 12 Oct 
2023.

Reports 98 to 99% of his ADHD patients have RSD and a third call it their most impairing
problem. Says a validation study is recruiting.

[ add.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/SLIDES-Dodson-Oct-12-2023-pdf.pdf ](https://add.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/SLIDES-Dodson-Oct-12-2023-pdf.pdf)

Case seriesPartly verified

Dodson WW, Modestino EJ, Ceritoğlu HT, Zayed B. Rejection sensitivity dysphoria 
in ADHD: a case series. Acta Scientific Neurology 2024;7(8):23–30.

Four patients from Dodson's practice. Low-tier open-access journal; no DOI shown.

[ actascientific.com/ASNE/ASNE-07-0762.php ](https://actascientific.com/ASNE/ASNE-07-0762.php)

EditorialPartly verified

Dodson WW, Modestino EJ. Have we placed the cart before the horse by using alpha-
2A agonists to treat RSD in ADHD? Current Psychopharmacology 2024;12(1).

The title itself concedes treatment has run ahead of evidence. Full text not read.

[ doi.org/10.2174/0122115560297397240404071044 ](https://doi.org/10.2174/0122115560297397240404071044)

OpinionVerified

Kahn G. Rejection sensitivity dysphoria: the actual research. Psychology Today blog,
April 2026.

Counts five studies of RSD itself, all interview-based, with 4 to 43 people. Argues
a validated measure must come first.

[ www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/if-i-be-waspish/202604/rejection-sensitivity-dysphoria-the-actual-research ](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/if-i-be-waspish/202604/rejection-sensitivity-dysphoria-the-actual-research)

OpinionVerified

van Asselt A. Rejection sensitivity dysphoria: een kritische beschouwing. Tijdschrift
voor Psychiatrie 2026;68(3):127–130.

Dutch critical essay. Warns of stigma, framing RSD as innate, muddled terms and 
thin evidence.

[ www.tijdschriftvoorpsychiatrie.nl/media/8/68-2026-03-asselt_ess.pdf ](https://www.tijdschriftvoorpsychiatrie.nl/media/8/68-2026-03-asselt_ess.pdf)

Not peer reviewedVerified

Alexander S. SSC survey results: ADHD and rejection sensitivity. Slate Star Codex,
14 Aug 2018.

Online survey, 7,264 people. 58.5% with ADHD agreed with one rejection-sensitivity
item, against 46.2% with no diagnosis. Weak method; included for balance.

[ slatestarcodex.com/2018/08/14/ssc-survey-results-adhd-and-rejection-sensitivity/ ](https://slatestarcodex.com/2018/08/14/ssc-survey-results-adhd-and-rejection-sensitivity/)

## Emotional dysregulation in ADHD (Barkley's model)

ReviewPartly verified

Barkley RA. Deficient emotional self-regulation: a core component of ADHD. Journal
of ADHD and Related Disorders 2010;1(2):5–37.

Argues fast emotional reactions and weak emotional brakes belong in the definition
of ADHD. Small journal; no DOI found.

No verified link

Cohort studyPartly verified

Barkley RA, Fischer M. The unique contribution of emotional impulsiveness to impairment
in major life activities in hyperactive children as adults. J Am Acad Child Adolesc
Psychiatry 2010;49(5):503–513.

Children with ADHD followed to about age 27. Emotional impulsiveness predicted problems
in work, relationships, driving and offending beyond ADHD symptoms.

[ pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20431470/ ](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20431470/)

Book chapterVerified

Barkley RA. Emotional dysregulation is a core component of ADHD. In: Barkley RA,
ed. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment.
4th ed. Guilford; 2015:81–115.

Sets out the four steps of emotional self-regulation used on the Learn page.

[ www.guilford.com/books/Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder/Russell-Barkley/9781462517725 ](https://www.guilford.com/books/Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder/Russell-Barkley/9781462517725)

Self-help bookVerified

Barkley RA. Taking Charge of Adult ADHD. 2nd ed. Guilford; 2021.

Includes sections on emotional self-control and mindfulness.

[ www.guilford.com/books/Taking-Charge-of-Adult-ADHD/Russell-Barkley/9781462546855 ](https://www.guilford.com/books/Taking-Charge-of-Adult-ADHD/Russell-Barkley/9781462546855)

Family studyVerified

Surman CBH, Biederman J, Spencer T, et al. Deficient emotional self-regulation and
adult ADHD: a family risk analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168(6):617–623.

Emotional dysregulation ran in families only when it came together with ADHD.

[ doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10081172 ](https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10081172)

Controlled studyVerified

Surman CBH, Biederman J, Spencer T, et al. Understanding deficient emotional self-
regulation in adults with ADHD: a controlled study. ADHD Atten Def Hyp Disord 2013;5(
3):273–281.

Severe dysregulation in 55% of 206 adults with ADHD against 3% of 123 without. Linked
to divorce, accidents and arrests.

[ doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0100-8 ](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-012-0100-8)

ReviewVerified

Shaw P, Stringaris A, Nigg J, Leibenluft E. Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171(3):276–293.

Emotion dysregulation in 25 to 45% of children and 30 to 70% of adults with ADHD.
Evidence cannot yet say whether it is core to ADHD or a separate trait.

[ doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070966 ](https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070966)

ReviewVerified

Faraone SV, Rostain AL, Blader J, et al. Practitioner review: emotional dysregulation
in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2019;60(
2):133–150.

Emotional impulsivity may be specific enough to count as an ADHD feature. No agreed
definition or measure yet.

[ doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12899 ](https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12899)

Meta-analysisVerified

Beheshti A, Chavanon ML, Christiansen H. Emotion dysregulation in adults with ADHD:
a meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 2020;20:120.

13 studies, 2,535 adults. Large gap between adults with and without ADHD (Hedges
g 1.17). Studies varied a lot.

[ doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2442-7 ](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2442-7)

Meta-analysisVerified

Graziano PA, Garcia A. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and children's emotion
dysregulation: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 2016;46:106–123.

77 studies, over 32,000 children. Large differences in emotional reactivity (d 0.95).

[ doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.011 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.011)

ReviewVerified

Gross JJ. The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Review
of General Psychology 1998;2(3):271–299.

Five points where a feeling can be managed, from choosing the situation to changing
the response. Earlier is easier.

[ doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271)

ReviewPartly verified

Gross JJ. Emotion regulation: current status and future prospects. Psychological
Inquiry 2015;26(1):1–26.

Updated version of the model. Page range not verified.

[ doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781 ](https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781)

## Rejection sensitivity (Downey's model) and social pain

Questionnaire studyVerified

Downey G, Feldman SI. Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships.
J Pers Soc Psychol 1996;70(6):1327–1343.

Defines rejection sensitivity: anxiously expecting, readily seeing and strongly 
reacting to rejection. High scorers read hurtful intent into a new partner's behaviour.

[ doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327)

Couples studyVerified

Downey G, Freitas AL, Michaelis B, Khouri H. The self-fulfilling prophecy in close
relationships: rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. J Pers 
Soc Psychol 1998;75(2):545–560.

Couples with a highly sensitive partner broke up more often, partly because of how
that partner behaved in conflict.

[ doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.545 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.545)

Lab studyVerified

Berenson KR, Gyurak A, Ayduk Ö, et al. Rejection sensitivity and disruption of attention
by social threat cues. J Res Pers 2009;43(6):1064–1072.

Rejection words specifically slowed highly sensitive people down.

[ doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.07.007 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.07.007)

Review of studiesVerified

Romero-Canyas R, Downey G, Berenson K, Ayduk Ö, Kang NJ. Rejection sensitivity and
the rejection–hostility link in romantic relationships. J Pers 2010;78(1):119–148.

Hurt turns into hostility, which draws real rejection. 44% against 15% one-year 
break-up rate.

[ doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x ](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00611.x)

Long-term studyVerified

Ayduk Ö, Mendoza-Denton R, Mischel W, Downey G, Peake PK, Rodriguez M. Regulating
the interpersonal self: strategic self-regulation for coping with rejection sensitivity.
J Pers Soc Psychol 2000;79(5):776–792.

Good self-control in childhood protected highly sensitive people from later problems.

[ doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.776 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.776)

Meta-analysisVerified

Gao S, Assink M, Cipriani A, Lin K. Associations between rejection sensitivity and
mental health outcomes: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 2017;57:59–74.

75 studies. Linked with depression, anxiety, loneliness, borderline personality 
and body image problems. ADHD not studied.

[ doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.007)

Brain imagingVerified

Eisenberger NI, Lieberman MD, Williams KD. Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of
social exclusion. Science 2003;302(5643):290–292.

Early study suggesting rejection uses pain areas of the brain. Later work qualified
this.

[ doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134 ](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134)

Meta-analysisVerified

Cacioppo S, Frum C, Asp E, et al. A quantitative meta-analysis of functional imaging
studies of social rejection. Sci Rep 2013;3:2027.

Did not confirm the key pain area lighting up reliably in rejection.

[ doi.org/10.1038/srep02027 ](https://doi.org/10.1038/srep02027)

Brain imagingVerified

Woo CW, Koban L, Kross E, et al. Separate neural representations for physical pain
and social rejection. Nat Commun 2014;5:5380.

Physical pain and rejection have different brain patterns. Rejection can feel physical
but is not the same as injury.

[ doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6380 ](https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6380)

ReviewPartly verified

Williams KD, Nida SA. Ostracism: consequences and coping. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2011;20(
2):71–75.

Being left out threatens belonging, self-esteem, control and a sense of mattering.
Page range not verified.

[ doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402480 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402480)

Meta-analysisVerified

Hartgerink CHJ, van Beest I, Wicherts JM, Williams KD. The ordinal effects of ostracism:
a meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS ONE 2015;10(5):e0127002.

Nearly 12,000 people. Even being left out of a simple online ball game by strangers
hurts a lot.

[ doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002 ](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002)

## Rejection sensitivity and ADHD

Survey studyVerified

Bondü R, Esser G. Justice and rejection sensitivity in children and adolescents 
with ADHD symptoms. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015;24(2):185–198.

1,235 young people. ADHD symptoms went with higher anxious and angry rejection sensitivity.

[ doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0560-9 ](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0560-9)

Brain response studyVerified

Babinski DE, Kujawa A, Kessel EM, Arfer KB, Klein DN. Sensitivity to peer feedback
in young adolescents with symptoms of ADHD: examination of neurophysiological and
self-report measures. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2019;47(4):605–617.

391 young people. More ADHD symptoms meant a bigger early brain response to rejection
and a weaker one to acceptance.

[ doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0470-2 ](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0470-2)

Survey studyPartly verified

Müller V, Mellor D, Pikó BF. Associations between ADHD symptoms and rejection sensitivity
in college students. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 2024;39(4):223–236.

304 students. Moderate link (r = .46). Students good at savouring positive moments
did not show it.

[ doi.org/10.1177/09388982241271511 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/09388982241271511)

Survey studyVerified

Scharf M, Oshri A, Eshkol V, Pilowsky T. Adolescents' ADHD symptoms and adjustment:
the role of attachment and rejection sensitivity. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2014;84(2):
209–217.

508 teenagers. Anxious attachment went with the most ADHD symptoms and the most 
rejection sensitivity.

[ doi.org/10.1037/h0099391 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099391)

Controlled studyVerified

Canu WH, Carlson CL. Rejection sensitivity and social outcomes of young adult men
with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2007;10(3):261–275.

78 male students. No difference in rejection sensitivity between men with and without
ADHD.

[ doi.org/10.1177/1087054706288106 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054706288106)

Controlled studyPartly verified

Kuru E, Özdemir İ, Öztürk M, Doğan T. Rejection sensitivity among adults with comorbid
borderline personality disorder and ADHD. Archives of Current Medical Research 2026;7(
3):607–617.

84 adults. Higher rejection sensitivity in the combined group, but borderline personality
confounds it.

[ doi.org/10.47482/acmr.1930382 ](https://doi.org/10.47482/acmr.1930382)

Interview studyVerified

Ginapp CM, Greenberg NR, MacDonald-Gagnon G, et al. “Dysregulated not deficit”: 
a qualitative study on symptomatology of ADHD in young adults. PLoS ONE 2023;18(
10):e0292721.

43 young adults recruited online; 33 described RSD. Not everyone was asked; diagnosis
confirmed in 63%.

[ doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292721 ](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292721)

Interview studyVerified

Rowney-Smith A, Sutton B, Quadt L, Eccles JA. The lived experience of rejection 
sensitivity in ADHD: a qualitative exploration. PLoS ONE 2026;21(1):e0314669.

Five students. Expecting rejection was worse than rejection itself. Themes: withdrawal,
masking, body sensations.

[ doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314669 ](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314669)

Interview studyPartly verified

Morley E, Tyrrell A. Exploring female students' experiences of ADHD. J Atten Disord
2023;27(10):1129–1155.

Eight women; most described struggling with RSD.

[ doi.org/10.1177/10870547231168432 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/10870547231168432)

Interview studyPartly verified

Sandland B. Neurodivergent experiences of rejection sensitive dysphoria. Neurodiversity(
SAGE) 2025.

Seven people. RSD varied with setting and eased in accepting environments.

[ doi.org/10.1177/27546330251394516 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/27546330251394516)

Interview studyVerified

Beaton DM, Sirois F, Milne E. Experiences of criticism in adults with ADHD: a qualitative
study. PLoS ONE 2022;17(2).

162 written accounts. Criticism was frequent, mostly about inattention, and hurt
self-worth.

[ pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8856522/ ](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8856522/)

Content studyPartly verified

Yeung A, Ng E, Abi-Jaoude E. TikTok and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder:
a cross-sectional study of social media content quality. Can J Psychiatry 2022.

52% of the top 100 ADHD TikTok videos were misleading. Background to how RSD spread
online.

[ doi.org/10.1177/07067437221082854 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437221082854)

## Treatment and self-help tools

Meta-analysisVerified

Moukhtarian TR, Cooper RE, Vassos E, Moran P, Asherson P. Effects of stimulants 
and atomoxetine on emotional lability in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Eur Psychiatry 2017;44:198–207.

9 trials. Effect on emotional swings about half the effect on core ADHD symptoms.

[ doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.05.021 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.05.021)

Meta-analysisVerified

Lenzi F, Cortese S, Harris J, Masi G. Pharmacotherapy of emotional dysregulation
in adults with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev
2018;84:359–367.

21 trials. Small to moderate effects from methylphenidate, atomoxetine and lisdexamfetamine.

[ doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.010 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.010)

TrialPartly verified

Safren SA, Sprich S, Mimiaga MJ, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy vs relaxation
with educational support for medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent 
symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010;304(8):875–880.

86 adults. 53% improved with CBT against 23% with relaxation; gains held at 12 months.
DOI not verified.

No verified link

TrialPartly verified

Halmøy A, Ring AE, Gjestad R, et al. Dialectical behavioral therapy-based group 
treatment versus treatment as usual for adults with ADHD: a multicenter randomized
controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2022;22:738.

121 adults. ADHD symptoms, quality of life and depression improved. Exact title 
not re-checked.

[ doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04356-6 ](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04356-6)

Pilot studyVerified

Zylowska L, Ackerman DL, Yang MH, et al. Mindfulness meditation training in adults
and adolescents with ADHD: a feasibility study. J Atten Disord 2008;11(6):737–746.

32 people, no control group. Symptoms, attention, anxiety and mood improved.

[ doi.org/10.1177/1087054707308502 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707308502)

Pilot trialVerified

Mitchell JT, McIntyre EM, English JS, et al. A pilot trial of mindfulness meditation
training for ADHD in adulthood: impact on core symptoms, executive functioning, 
and emotion dysregulation. J Atten Disord 2017;21(13):1105–1120.

20 adults against a waitlist. Large self-reported drop in emotion dysregulation.

[ doi.org/10.1177/1087054713513328 ](https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713513328)

BookVerified

Zylowska L, Mitchell JT. Mindfulness for Adult ADHD: A Clinician's Guide. Guilford;
2020.

The 8-week programme Barkley recommends.

[ www.guilford.com/books/Mindfulness-for-Adult-ADHD/Zylowska-Mitchell/9781462545001 ](https://www.guilford.com/books/Mindfulness-for-Adult-ADHD/Zylowska-Mitchell/9781462545001)

Self-help bookVerified

Zylowska L. The Mindfulness Prescription for Adult ADHD. Trumpeter; 2012.

Self-help version of the programme.

No verified link

TrialVerified

Ghonchehpour A, Azizzadeh Forouzi M, Dehghan M, et al. The effect of mindfulness-
based stress reduction on rejection sensitivity and resilience in patients with 
thalassemia: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2023;23:281.

66 patients. The only trial found that measured rejection sensitivity directly. 
Small effect; not ADHD.

[ doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04802-z ](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04802-z)

Lab studyVerified

Kross E, Ayduk Ö, Mischel W. When asking “why” does not hurt: distinguishing rumination
from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychol Sci 2005;16(9):709–715.

Looking at a painful memory from a distance reduced upset compared with reliving
it.

[ doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01600.x ](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01600.x)

Lab and diary studiesVerified

Ayduk Ö, Kross E. From a distance: implications of spontaneous self-distancing for
adaptive self-reflection. J Pers Soc Psychol 2010;98(5):809–829.

People who naturally stepped back reacted less and returned less hostility in conflict.

[ doi.org/10.1037/a0019205 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019205)

Lab studiesVerified

Kross E, Bruehlman-Senecal E, Park J, et al. Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism:
how you do it matters. J Pers Soc Psychol 2014;106(2):304–324.

Seven studies, 585 people. Using your own name cut distress and replaying.

[ doi.org/10.1037/a0035173 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035173)

Meta-analysisVerified

Webb TL, Miles E, Sheeran P. Dealing with feeling: a meta-analysis of the effectiveness
of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychol Bull
2012;138(4):775–808.

Rethinking helped (d 0.45); distraction helped a little; hiding feelings did nothing;
dwelling made things worse.

[ doi.org/10.1037/a0027600 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027600)

Meta-analysisVerified

Gollwitzer PM, Sheeran P. Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-
analysis of effects and processes. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 2006;38:69–119.

If-then plans make people much more likely to follow through.

[ doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1 ](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1)

Lab studiesVerified

Gawrilow C, Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions facilitate response inhibition
in children with ADHD. Cognit Ther Res 2008;32:261–280.

If-then plans brought stopping skills up to typical levels, best alongside stimulant
medicine.

[ doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9150-1 ](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9150-1)

Lab studiesVerified

Leary MR, Tate EB, Adams CE, Allen AB, Hancock J. Self-compassion and reactions 
to unpleasant self-relevant events. J Pers Soc Psychol 2007;92(5):887–904.

Self-kindness softened reactions to unflattering feedback without dodging responsibility.

[ doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887)

Meta-analysisVerified

Ferrari M, Hunt C, Harrysunker A, et al. Self-compassion interventions and psychosocial
outcomes: a meta-analysis of RCTs. Mindfulness 2019;10:1455–1473.

27 trials. Large drop in rumination; moderate drops in depression, anxiety and self-
criticism.

[ doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01134-6 ](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01134-6)

Survey studyVerified

Beaton DM, Sirois F, Milne E. The role of self-compassion in the mental health of
adults with ADHD. J Clin Psychol 2022;78(12):2497–2512.

856 adults. Lower self-compassion helped explain poorer mental health in ADHD.

[ doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23354 ](https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23354)

ReviewVerified

Zaccaro A, Piarulli A, Laurino M, et al. How breath-control can change your life:
a systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing. Front 
Hum Neurosci 2018;12:353.

Breathing about 6 times a minute increased calm. Small studies; anxiety findings
mixed.

[ doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353 ](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353)

Meta-analysisVerified

Frattaroli J. Experimental disclosure and its moderators: a meta-analysis. Psychol
Bull 2006;132(6):823–865.

146 studies of writing about upsetting events. Small benefit.

[ doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823 ](https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823)

Lab and field studiesPartly verified

Dandeneau SD, Baldwin MW, Baccus JR, Sakellaropoulo M, Pruessner JC. Cutting stress
off at the pass: reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating
attention. J Pers Soc Psychol 2007;93(4):651–666.

Attention training lowered stress in lab and workplace tests. DOI not verified.

No verified link

Meta-analysisVerified

Cristea IA, Kok RN, Cuijpers P. Efficacy of cognitive bias modification interventions
in anxiety and depression: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2015;206(1):7–16.

49 trials. Small effects that faded after correcting for bias. The reason the toolkit
says skip these apps.

[ doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.146761 ](https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.146761)

Compiled October 2026. Educational material, not medical advice.